What Religion Existed In Western Europe When Witchcraft And Midwifery Were Practiced?

Witchcraft, initially a pagan and debased religion, was associated with the worship of the Devil. Attendance at witches’ sabbaths, where rites of worship were performed, was a fundamental duty and privilege for the witch. The European Witch Trials were widespread throughout western Europe, occurring in Germany, Switzerland, Austria, France, the U.K., and New England. The phenomenon emerged as an underground survival of a pre-patrarchal, nature- and woman-centered culture. Feminist witchcraft has reclaimed the figure of the witch as a woman-healer.

One kind of woman-healer most associated with witchcraft accusations is the midwife, who often had knowledge of herbs and folk healing but also presided over women’s reproductive health. After years of being relegated to folkloric and esoteric studies, European witchcraft is beginning to emerge as an important chapter in early modern history. The book is divided into three parts, focusing on witch beliefs, the social roles of the accused in the European Witch Trials, and the role of the ISAs during the trials.

Over the centuries, the charge of “witchcraft” covered a multitude of sins ranging from political subversion and religious heresy to lewdness and blasphemy. Some Protestant lands like the northern Netherlands, England, and Scandinavian kingdoms saw a moderate quota of witch trials, while others saw a more severe quota.

In early modern European tradition, witches were stereotypically, though not exclusively, women. European pagan belief in witchcraft was associated with the witch trials in Russia, which took a different course from those held in Western Europe. Regulations on the practice of midwifery and the early witch trials occurred during the same time period, causing debate.

Where did witchcraft originate in Europe?

The origins of European witchcraft can be traced back to classical antiquity, when magic and religion were closely related. In Ancient Rome, laws against harmful magic were in place, and accusations of heresy and devil worship grew more prevalent. By the early modern period, major witch hunts began to occur, partly fueled by religious tensions, societal anxieties, and economic upheaval. Witches were often viewed as dangerous sorceresses or sorcerers in a pact with the Devil, capable of causing harm through black magic. A feminist interpretation suggests that misogynist views of women led to the association of women with malevolent witchcraft.

The Malleus Maleficarum, a 1486 treatise, provided a framework for identifying, prosecuting, and punishing witches. The burgeoning influence of the Catholic Church led to a wave of witch trials across Europe, targeting marginalized individuals, including women, the elderly, and those who did not conform to societal norms. The witch-craze reached its peak between the 16th and 17th centuries, resulting in the execution of tens of thousands of people.

The Tsardom of Russia also experienced witchcraft trials during the 17th century, accusing witches of practicing sorcery and engaging in supernatural activities, leading to their excommunication and execution. The fear of witches shifted from mere superstition to a tool for political manipulation, targeting individuals who posed threats to the ruling elite.

Who was accused of witchcraft in Europe?

The European Witch Trials, which occurred from the 13th to 17th century, were widespread in western Europe, including Germany, Switzerland, Austria, France, the U. K., and New England. Women were accused of being witches for perceived abnormal behavior or a Devil’s Mark on their skin. One reason women could be tried and killed as witches was their role as midwives or healers. The Catholic Church faced significant issues with the use of plant medicines, such as belladonna, deadly nightshade, and ergot, during childbirth.

These remedies were considered effective in easing childbirth pain, but the church perceived any attempt to alleviate it as a violation of God’s wishes. Major European churches believed that pain during childbirth was punishment for Eve’s Original Sin, making a midwife’s role more harmful than the church. The 15th century Catholic guide to witch-hunting, the Malleus Maleficarum, stated that no one did more harm to the Catholic Church than the midwife. The church also exerted control over the witch trials, with the medical community playing a crucial role in suppressing women healers’ work.

What group of people were accused of witchcraft?

The Malleus Maleficarum, a 1494 witchcraft and demonology manual, states that women often think alone, leading to witchcraft accusations. In New England, women were the majority of those prosecuted, often pointing the finger at middle-aged and older women. However, popular belief held that anyone could be a witch, even friends and family. In 17th-century Salem, witches were not considered, as they were seen as serving the devil in opposition to the Christian church.

In 1692, several young girls in Salem Village reported unseen agents or forces afflicting them, accusing their neighbors of causing these afflictions. The accused and the murdered were innocent. Today, the term “witch” encompasses a broad spectrum of contemporary identities and professions, including tarot readers, spiritual healers, Wiccan High Priestesses, Neo-Pagans, occultists, mystics, herbalists, and activists. The city’s popularity among those who identify as witches may be due to lessons learned from 1692 and Salem’s attempts to confront its past.

What is the ancient religion practiced by witches?

Wicca, the largest modern Pagan or Neo-Pagan religion, emerged in England during the 1950s and is influenced by pre-Christian European religions. Most followers are members of initiatory groups called covens, but by the early 21st century, most operate solitarily. Today, the number of Wiccans is likely in the low hundreds of thousands, with the majority residing in English-speaking Western countries. The main symbol of Wicca is the pentagram.

The movement’s origins can be traced back to Gerald Brosseau Gardner, a retired British civil servant who spent most of his career in Asia and read widely in Western esoteric literature. Gardner claimed to have discovered a group of witches operating near England’s New Forest in 1939 and claimed that their teachings provided the basis of Wicca. After the 1951 repeal of Britain’s archaic witchcraft laws, Gardner published Witchcraft Today and founded his first coven of followers.

Other occultists drew on Gardner’s writings and other texts about witchcraft to establish their own Wiccan traditions during the 1950s and ’60s. They typically claimed to be practicing a pre-Christian witchcraft religion that had clandestinely survived for centuries. Alexander Sanders founded Alexandrian Wicca, and Victor Anderson and Cora Anderson spearheaded the Feri tradition. By the 1960s, the word Wicca had emerged as a general term for this new religion, although there was some internal contestation as to its specific applicability.

Who was the midwife accused of witchcraft?

Margaret Jones, a healer and midwife in Boston, Massachusetts, was the first person executed by hanging for witchcraft in 1648. She was known for her prophetic visions and knowledge of church sermons. In 1648, her patients accused her of witchcraft, claiming she had a malignant touch that caused deafness, vomiting, and other symptoms. Despite her medicines being simple liquors made of anise seed, they were reported to have extraordinary violent effects. Margaret and her husband were arrested for witchcraft, and she was watched for 24 hours to determine if she was a witch.

A year before her arrest, the book “The Discovery of Witches” was published as a witch-hunting manual, which advised watching a witch for 24 hours to see if the witch’s imp would come to feed. A police officer saw a child in Margaret’s cell that ran away and vanished, leading to Margaret’s conviction and sentencing. Governor Winthrop described her behavior at her trial as “very intemperate, lying notoriously, and railing upon the jury and witnesses”.

On June 15th, 1648, Margaret was hanged at Gallow’s Hill at Boston Neck. A large storm hit Connecticut within the hour of her hanging, further proof that Margaret was a witch. Her husband was not convicted, but his reputation was ruined due to being the husband of a convicted witch.

Which type of person was most likely to be considered a witch?

Witches were often considered women who enjoyed independence, as they were considered worrying elements of the established social order. The spectrum of witches varied, including women alone, single, widows, poor, old, foreign, melancholic, and healing women. Many witches were women who acted with independence and were prepared to defend themselves. In England, women who knew how to swim were considered witches, as the water rejected them.

Witches were often women of peasant extraction and poor, working for the community and working classes. Healing women were often from comfortable social situations, and midwives were another sector that suffered persecution during the witch-hunt. Midwives were accused of witchcraft due to the belief that birth had magical qualities, and they had special powers due to their knowledge of birth mysteries.

The institutionalization of medicine in universities meant that obstetrics remained the only area related to medicine and health reserved for women. However, this was snatched from them in the nineteenth century. Women were excluded from the practice of medicine until the figure of the nurse appeared at the end of the nineteenth century, especially with Florence Nightingale. The nurse appears linked to the role of women as carers, completely subordinated to doctors.

What European country had the most witch trials?

Witch hunting in Early Modern Europe was a frenzy that occurred in two waves: the first in the 15th and early 16th centuries and the second in the 17th century. The most significant area of witch hunting was southwestern Germany, where the highest concentration of trials occurred between 1561 and 1670. The 1692-1693 Salem Witch Trials were a brief outburst of witch hysteria in the New World, occurring when the practice was already waning in Europe.

In February 1692, a girl became ill and her playmates exhibited unusual behavior. A supernatural cause was suggested, leading to suspicions of witchcraft. Three townswomen were accused of witchcraft: Tituba, a slave, Sarah Good, a poor beggar, and Sarah Osborne, a quarrelsome woman. During the trial, Tituba declared herself a witch and flew through the air on poles, silenced skeptics, and witch hunting began in earnest.

What were the witch trials in medieval Europe?

The witch craze, also known as the witch hunt, occurred in medieval Europe between the 15th and 18th centuries. During this period, thousands of citizens were persecuted for witchcraft, with the majority of these individuals being women. It is estimated that nearly half of those accused were subsequently murdered.

What social and religious factors are given to account for the harsh response to witchcraft?

Witchcraft trials in Scotland during a time of religious and social upheaval led to the church accusing and persecuting women as witches, promoting itself. The church used its teachings and followers’ beliefs to construct a system against women and those accused of witchcraft, deeming their actions as ungodly, demonic, and evil. This tension within the Church led to the implementation of the Scottish Witchcraft Act of 1563, the first Scottish law to consider witchcraft a crime.

An oak panel from St. Nicholas’ Church, Aberdeen, depicts a demonic face with horns, sharp teeth, and stylized vines and flowers. The carving was likely to ward off evil or remind churchgoers of its ever-present threat. The Holy Bible, containing the Old Testament and the New, was newly translated out of the original tongues and compared and revised by His Majesties special commandment.

Is witchcraft a religion?

Wicca, an alternative minority religion founded in the UK in the 1940s, is part of the contemporary pagan movement, which includes druids and heathens. Since its arrival in the US in the 1960s, Wicca has been growing, with an estimated 1. 5 million witches in the US. However, not all witches consider themselves Wiccans, with approximately 800, 000 Americans being Wiccans according to recent survey data. The increasing numbers in surveys and the growth of groups on platforms like TikTok suggest that the religion is continuing to grow.

What kind of people were accused of witchcraft?

Witchcraft was a prevalent stereotype in early modern society, particularly associated with women. Images of witches often depicted women riding on broomsticks with a pointed hat, a stereotype that persists today. This was due to the church’s teaching that women were weaker and more vulnerable to the Devil’s seductive powers. However, men were also suspected and accused of witchcraft, such as the male witches of Edmonton.

Witches were often accused of witchcraft, leading to an indictment, witnesses, examination, confession, and sometimes torture. Those found guilty were executed. However, not all accusations were believed, as people were suspicious of attempts to pretend to be bewitched or bewitched. For instance, Katherine Malpas’ relatives pretended she was a witch for financial gain.

Witchcraft caused fear within society but also became a normal part of life. Newcomers to a community might be accused of witchcraft due to suspicion from their neighbors, or for making money. The harvest failed, and people became more suspicious of witchcraft. Witchcraft trials became a platform for grievances and disputes to be discussed, and people stood in testimony for or against their neighbors. Understanding the history of witchcraft provides insight into the realities of everyday life for ordinary people in early modern England.